Research contributed by Muzna Bishara
“Semolina cakes are as old as the days of the wheat harvest,” writes chef, farmer, and cookbook author Hedai Offaim in his cookbook, “A Book About Food.” He explains that “almost every nation in the region between North Africa and Northern Europe has its own version of a crumbly, airy cake, more or less sweet, that goes great with a cup of tea. Whether it’s called basbousa, safra, tishpishti, or shamali, it’s customary to mix the semolina with yogurt or milk, and sometimes with eggs, and pour a sweet sugar syrup over everything.”
The history of this traditional dessert transcends time and cultures. Its simplicity and the availability of its ingredients have been key to its spread across the region, resulting in countless variations and names.
The Prototype of the Semolina Cake
The earliest reference to a semolina-based dessert may appear in the book of Ezekiel, according to biblical scholar Dr. Tova Dickstein: “Thus you were adorned with gold and silver, and your clothing was of fine linen, silk, and embroidered cloth. You ate pastry of fine flour, honey, and oil.” (Ezekiel 16:13). Semolina was considered a precious ingredient because its production involved a labor-intensive sifting process. It represented the most refined part of the flour, known in biblical terms as the “finest” portion.
Due to its elevated status, semolina was even used as an offering on the altar. Like regular flour, semolina is derived from wheat, but is unique in that it “falls” from the center of the wheat kernel during the early stages of milling — comprising just 3-5% of the kernel’s volume. Even today, the Arabic word for semolina, sameed (سميد), translates to “fine, well-sifted flour.”
“Like many foods whose origins are hard to pinpoint, the exact birthplace of basbousa remains uncertain. What is certain, however, is its Arab origin, as it shares similarities with other [Arab] confections that are traditionally drenched in sugar syrup,” explains Dr. Limor Yungman, a food historian specializing in Arab cuisine and a research fellow in the Martin Buber Fellows Program at Hebrew University.
According to the “Kitab al-Tabikh,” a cookbook written in Baghdad in the 10th century, early versions of a semolina dessert in the region were porridge-like in consistency. The book documents various versions of a cooked semolina dessert made from semolina cooked in fat, typically clarified butter, and flavored with sugar water, honey, and spices. This dish has gone by many names over time. Among the best known are the shami mamounia (named after the 10th-century Caliph al-Ma’mun), which is still prepared in our region today. Meanwhile, Turkish semolina halva, known as irmik helvasi, is still prepared and served the same way as the book describes.
“If we consider the hypothesis that semolina pudding is one of the early ancestors of basbousa, the main evolution lies in the method of preparation,” says Dr. Yungman. “The historical recipe for semolina pudding, for instance, did not contain eggs, which is likely a later addition.” She explains that medieval cookbooks provide further insights into these ancestral desserts. “A 13th-century Syrian cookbook and a 14th-century Egyptian cookbook contain recipes for a thick semolina pudding called smeed (from the Arabic word for semolina, sameed), which is made with sugar syrup. Additionally, there is a medieval confection called bsisa (not related to the modern-day Tunisian bsissa), which shares both a linguistic root and a similar preparation method with basbousa: mixing flour or semolina with other ingredients (such as oil, butter, or clarified butter) without kneading, then pressing and rubbing them together between the hands to create a crumbly texture.”
The word basbousa derives from the Arabic word “bas,” which refers to the act of rubbing semolina with oil between one’s hands. One legend tells of an Egyptian merchant who returned home one day with a sack of semolina, and his wife decided to make a dessert from it. As the delightful aroma of the baking cake filled the house, the merchant, wanting to express his gratitude and admiration, was asked to wait until the cake was ready. He replied, “bas busa,” meaning “just a kiss.” Another version of the story suggests the name comes from the cake’s delicate and soft texture, which is likened to a kiss on the lips.
The Basbousa’s Travels in the Middle East
A baked semolina cake similar to the version we know today was first mentioned in a 14th-century Egyptian cookbook, where it is referred to as foostukia Nabulseyeh — a semolina cake that, as the name suggests, originated in Nablus and is decorated with pistachios. This cake spread throughout the Mediterranean region and, with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, migrated to Greece, the Balkans, and Eastern Europe.
“One of the ways food migrates from place to place is through migration, whether voluntary or forced,” says Adi Namia-Cohen, a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Jewish History at Hebrew University. “What tastes good wins, and usually what survives is the ‘memory of the food,’ followed by an attempt to recreate it. We don’t always find the raw ingredients we had originally, so we have to adapt to a certain extent.” In her view, this process can explain local or regional variations and changes in the same dish or dessert.
“Another aspect of migration is the conquerors themselves,” adds Namia-Cohen. “Take the Ottoman Empire, for example. They often held feasts, and with large quantities of food, there were always leftovers. So, they established soup kitchens and charitable institutions to serve what remained or sell it at a symbolic price to those in need. This also helped strengthen their image as a government that cared for the vulnerable.”
According to Dr. Yungman, “When the Ottoman sultans conquered the Levant and Egypt in the 16th century, they adopted local food traditions and transformed them into what we recognize today.” As a result, she continues, we see different versions of semolina cake in Greece, Libya, and along the Mediterranean coast, areas once under Ottoman rule. “The essence is the same, but the diversity in preparation and decoration across the Levant is what makes them different,” she explains. “The development in each country, along with the changes in the dish’s name, are influenced by local preferences and tastes. However, the core concept of a semolina cake soaked in syrup has remained consistent.”
Namia-Cohen explains that the elites of the empire would often travel with their personal cooks, but they also employed locals, which facilitated the spread of different cuisines along their routes. “It was a mutual exchange where everyone learned from one another, with local ingredients naturally shaping the flavors and leading to regional variations,” she concludes.
The use of sugar also spread in a similar way, becoming a key ingredient in Middle Eastern sweets as early as the 9th century. “In the Middle Ages, it was considered a status symbol due to its high price, and only the elite could afford it,” explains Dr. Yungman. “Rulers in Egypt, for example, used sugar to demonstrate their power and wealth. Throughout the Middle Ages, it remained as a status symbol of the elite, and it was only in later periods that it became more common and accessible to the lower strata of society.”
Samneh (clarified butter) was also a costly ingredient, and semolina itself was regarded as the finest quality flour. In Arab cuisine, semolina has long been associated with generosity and hospitality. Even today, semolina cake is often presented to guests on large trays at gatherings, celebrations, and especially engagement parties. It’s also traditional served after breaking one’s fast during Ramadan. And among Coptic Christians in Egypt, basbousa is customarily enjoyed at the end of fasts such as Lent and the Nativity fast.
The Ottomans were renowned for their deep affection for sweets, viewing them as symbols of joy, goodwill, and hospitality. Sweets held a prominent role in their culture and were integral to marking significant events and holidays such as Ramadan, births, circumcisions, weddings, and funerals. These occasions were incomplete without a traditional dessert.
Sweets also carried spiritual significance. The Prophet Muhammad, known to have loved sweets and honey, encouraged their consumption, believing they bring joy to life and heal the soul. An (unverified) saying attributed to him is: “The believer is sweet and loves sweets,” along with “The love of sweets stems from faith.”
This deep-rooted presence of sweets in Ottoman daily life elevated their preparation to an art form, particularly semolina-based desserts. From these creations emerged the semolina cake we know today, commonly referred to as basbousa or hareesa.
The Cake with a Thousand Names
In Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon, this beloved semolina cake is known as hareesa. “Not to be confused with the spicy red harissa paste from North Africa,” clarifies Dr. Yungman. The name hareesa translates to “minced” or “ground,” referencing the cake’s crumbly texture. In Lebanon, another name for semolina cake is namura. Chef Farah Raslan, who was born southern Lebanon, explains that namoura gets its name from the almond decorations on its surface, resembling a leopard’s spots (namir is the Arabic word for leopard). Compared to hareesa, she notes, namoura often features a lighter sugar syrup, making it less sweet.
Across North Africa, the semolina cakes go by various regional names. There’s Libya’s safra cake and the Algerian-French gâteau de semoule. In the Balkans, it is called tishpishti, while in Greece, it is known as shamali or revani. In Greece, the cake is associated with the town of Veria in the north which is renowned for its specialized baking traditions.
Semolina cakes also appear in Western Europe, notably in Italy and Spain, likely introduced by Muslims during their rule. In Sicily, Italy, and Andalusia, Spain, semolina cakes evolved to include local ingredients like ground almonds, ricotta cheese in the Naples region, and orange zest or juice. Over time, the cake even traveled with the Spanish to South America, adapting further to new culinary landscapes.
Each variation of semolina cake carries a unique name that reflects its geographic origins, linguistic influences, and local culinary preferences. For instance, dahdah (from the Arabic word dahduh, meaning “fat and plump”) is a rich semolina cake filled with cinnamon, typical in the regions around Nablus and Hebron.
Hareesat qizha, a traditional Palestinian cake now disappearing from the culinary landscape, stands out for its striking black color, achieved by adding nigella seed tahini to the semolina mixture. It is traditionally given to new mothers since it’s believed to aid in milk production.
Another traditional Palestinian dessert, semolina cake with fenugreek seeds called helbeh cake, carries symbolic significance in the Levant and often served during mourning rituals to represent the bittersweet nature of life. In Lebanon, sfouf is a dry yellow semolina cake flavored with turmeric.
“There are many Syrian and Palestinian hareesa recipes whose origins are not always clear,” says Raslan. “On the other hand, there are distinct recipes like hareesa nabqia, associated with the cake maker Al-Nabqi from Al Nabk, a city near the Qalamoun mountain range on the Syrian-Lebanese border.”
She explains that in the past, semolina cakes like hareesa Nabqia were typically sold in bakeries rather than made at home. “The recipes weren’t as widely accessible as they are today, and they required professional ovens and specialized equipment,” she says. “Plus, many preferred to buy these labor-intensive dishes rather than prepare them themselves.”
Today, hareesa can be found across Israel in many variations, thanks to local Palestinian cuisine and immigrants from Mediterranean countries who brought their recipes from the Diaspora.
From Austerity-Era Cake to High-End Restaurants
In modern Hebrew literature, semolina appears in recipes for both porridge and cakes. Books from the 1930s, such as “Home Economics” and “How to Cook in the Land of Israel,” include recipes for semolina cake with jam or a simple semolina torte. The first recipe for hareesa cake in Hebrew appeared in the 1962 cookbook “Flavors of Israel.” It notes that the recipe was contributed by Mary Kabbaj from Ramleh.
In Lillian Kornfeld’s 1967 book “Good Cooking — East and West,” semolina cake is listed under “Middle Eastern Cakes,” alongside a recipe for ma’amoul. Kornfeld’s relatively simple recipe includes semolina, flour, baking powder, margarine, vanilla or almond extract, milk, and cracked nuts.
Semolina cake gained newfound prominence in Israel in 2009 with the opening of Machneyuda restaurant in Jerusalem’s Machane Yehuda Market. Uri Navon, one of the restaurant’s chefs and owners, added his mother’s Jerusalem basbousa, a family recipe passed down through generations, to the dessert menu.
The restaurant’s instant success drew crowds eager to taste the basbousa, served with tahini ice cream. Its popularity sparked a resurgence of basbousa dishes on restaurant menus, paving the way for other semolina-based desserts like Lebanese nights dessert and the Syrian sweet halawet al-jibn. This revival brought semolina cake back to prominence, echoing its origins in the Sultan’s haute cuisine.
